Analyse Hytners version by comparing and reviewing the play scenes Essay

In this essay I am going to analyse Hytners version by comparing and reviewing the play scenes. My essay is also going to include comments on the language, opening scenes, settings and characters. I think that the stage play is longer than the screen play because the screen play is summarized, this is because in films you don’t have long speech because there are other things around that help you understand, for example when the girls are in court and Abigail pretends to get cold when she see Mary Warren but in the book this is written in a long speech but in the video it is cut down because there is body language used also in the stage play Parris takes books from Hale but in the screenplay John Proctor takes the books because Proctor is the main character, so the main character should welcome Hale at this time Parris is inside with the girls. We are introduced to the one of the main characters when the film begins which is at the night. The first shot we see of the film is Abigail sitting bolt upright in bed because she can’t sleep because of John Proctor. She can’t wait to go cast spells in the woods, which the girls had planned and is looking forward to it. The movement of the girls is very suspicious because you are curious were they are going because they do everything planned, you be asking yourself, why are there so m any and why are they so quiet? I think that the dancing scene brings a lot of excitement to the audience. And when Abigail kills the chicken and licks the blood. I think she is stupid there and heartless because she is killing someone just for her love also the audience is very shocked when they see her doing this. Our attention is on Abigail throughout the opening scene because she’s the first person we see and she takes the lead by drinking chicken blood, she is made to be attractive to the men. Witchcraft starts when Betty falls ill, and everyone thinks she has been witched, also Abigail says they were only dancing but the video shows them conjuring spirits. The main characters in the crucible are John Proctor and Abigail Williams. Abigail is very evil when she pretended that Mary is sending her spirit and making the girl come cold, she acts different at the time, and she is very blue when she is demonstrating this act. John Proctor is powerful in his own way for example when he tells Abigail he don’t lover her and pushes her away, he also is very confident when he confesses the affair he had with Abigail. He is also a risk taker because when he doesn’t sign the paper and has to be hanged But John Proctor is a caring and calm to his children and wife and the village also think that he is an excellent man but the village and his family don’t know that he has been faithful by having an affair behind there back. John Proctor is not a very religious man he had not gone to church throughout the whole play. When Abigail is initially talking to Betty and the girls, the camera is facing Abigail when she speaks the effect this has is that we can see things from Abigail perspective. The lighting is very dim and dreamy the only light we can see is the natural light from the windows. The style of lighting ads to the mood of the scene by then we can realize that this scene is going to be important that the conversation between Abigail and Betty is serious and dull. When the girls are in the woods the lighting is misty, there is a bit of light on the girls mostly on Abigail as there is talking it goes from one person to another. Overall I think that the screen play is better than stage play because in the screen play I could understand what is happening but in the stage play I was confused, because I had to read it and it was quiet confusing but when I watched the video it had people to it so they help me understand more.

Mr Guan

Report Report Due: pm Friday 23rd August, Week 4. Hand in report electronically vie e-learning. Time to complete: This assessment task should take the average student 10-15 hours to complete, Including research time. Late Penalty: As for all other assessment tasks for this course, late penalties are 20% of the maximum possible mark per day or part thereof.Time of submission Is logged via e-learning, note that the e-learning time may not be the same as your watch/phone/computer timely Weekends and public holidays are not included . Plagiarism: You must include a plagiarism compliance statement. Reports may be checked for plagiarism with an online system, please correctly use quotes from sources and reference them correctly as per the author/ date or numbered system. Refer to the library weapon for guidance on referencing and plagiarism.Any report found to have been plagiarisms will be processed as per the University plagiarism policy. Task Description: Written case study report (20% of course total assessment). Present a written technical (In report format as per lecture one guidelines) case study focusing on a major workplace safety incident that occurred (anywhere In the world). The emphasis and purpose of the report Is to; research, describe and discuss the Incident primarily In relation to the Safety Systems related to the event. Ђ Describe the Incident/event and possible causes of the event (including causes related to the management/operation of safety systems) Relate the incident/event to any failures in safety systems (including managerial) that were present Discuss what preventative measures could/should have been taken What changes would you suggest be made to limit the possibility of repeat event occurring? How would you review the effectiveness of your proposed changes?Word Limit: This Report should be approximately 2000-3000 words in length (not including the title page, summary, table of contents, references or appendices). Writing concise yet Informative reports Is an Important part of being a Professional Engineer. The ability to accurately convey Information In a concise, relevant and effective manner is a key skill that you should endeavourer to develop. Reports containing more than 3250 or fewer than 1750 words will result in mark penalties of 0% of the possible mark for every 250 words under/ over the limit.Grade Descriptors A+ A ABA+ B BIO 95 90 85 80 75 High Distinction 85% – 100% As for the criteria for ‘Distinction', however the work also shows a high degree of professionalism. The report structure is excellent and provides a convincing discussion/argument of the topic. There is good evidence of in depth, critical discussion of the topic. Report has excellent grammar, spelling and Is of a concise nature. The work shows a good appreciation of the general alma/purpose of the topic. There Is good coverage of the topic with relevant and accurate support ND a well developed scholarly discussion/argument .Grammar and spelling are very good and report is reasonably concise. The work is relevant and addresses several reasonable amount of the content and a scholarly discussion/argument has been advanced. There is limited evidence of an overall integrative view of the topic. Grammar, spelling and conciseness are lacking. The information in the various aspects of the work is relevant and accurate but is not integrated and only covers some core aspects of the topic. There is an attempt at a scholarly discussion/ argument and the work indicates a limited understanding of the topic.

Retail Service Quality Scale Essay

To contextually fit the retail industry, Dabholkar et al. (1996) developed Retail Service Quality Model (RSQS). Based on SERVPERF, RSQS includes 28-item scale, of which 17 items are from SERVPERF and 11 items are developed by qualitative research. The Retail Service Quality Scale composes of 5 dimensions, namely: (1) Physical aspects (2) Reliability (3) Personal interaction (4) Problem-solving (5) Policy According to Dabholkar et al. (1996), retail service quality had a hierarchical factor structure which comprised of five basic dimensions (see Figure 4). Figure 4: The proposed hierarchical structure of retail service quality Source: Pratibha A. Dabholkar et al (1996), p. 6 26 The detail explanations of the dimensions are: 1. Physical aspects – includes functional elements like layout, comfort and privacy and also aesthetic elements such as the architecture, color, materials and style of the store. 2. Reliability – a combination of keeping promises and performing services right. 3. Personal interaction – the service personnel being courteous, helpful, inspiring confidence and trust in customers. 4. Problem-solving – the handling of returns and exchanges as well as complaints. 5. General Policy – a set of strategies, procedures and guiding principles which the store operates under such rules as high quality merchandise, convenient operating hours, availability of parking spaces and payment options. Physical aspects: Physical aspects of retailer include equipment and fixtures, physical facilities, materials associated with store’s service, convenience of physical facilities and layouts. In addition to the appearance of the facilities, it also takes into account the convenience offered the customer by the layout of physical facilities (Berry 2004) Bitner (1992) refers to physical/technical enablers using the term â€Å"servicescape† (a combination of service and landscape), including ambient conditions (temperature, air quality, and noise), space and function (layout, equipment, and furnishing), and signs and symbols (e.g. signage, style of decor, and personal artifacts). Thus, physical/technical products or attributes are necessary dimensions when creating the conditions for a service experience (Bitner, 1992, p.61). The retail store atmosphere also has been shown to have a positive influence on consumers’ patronage intentions (Baker et al., 1993). We expect this linkage in our study as well. Atmospheric cues consist of ambience, design, and social factors (Baker, 1986, p. 24). According to research of Arun Sharma and Thomas F. Stafford (2000) store atmospherics can enhance customers’ quality perceptions, which lead, in turn, to higher levels of persuasion. Thus, store environments have become an increasingly important method of retail positioning (Levy and Weitz, 1995, p 105). The environment of a store is an important part of the shopping experience. The environment is offered by a store can influence consumers’ decision to visit the store (Kotler, 1973, p.48), and the retail environment can guide consumers’ inferences about merchandise, service quality, and enjoyment at the store (Mehrabian, 1974; Zeithaml, 1988). Reliability: Reliability of retailers includes keeping promises to do something, providing right service, available merchandise and error-free sales transactions and records (Mehrabian, 1974; Zeithaml, 1988). 27 Personal interaction: The personal interaction dimension of retailers includes employees having knowledge to answer questions, inspiring confidence, providing prompt service, willing to respond to customer’s requests, giving customers individual attention, showing consistent courteously with customers and even treat customers properly on the phone (Mehrabian, 1976; Zeithaml, 1988). The role of interpersonal interaction in influencing customer satisfaction has been recognized in prior literature on services marketing (Ndubisi, 2007, p. 830). In contrast, for a business delivering service in interactive encounters with customers, â€Å"personalization† emerges as the most important determinant of perceived service quality, and of customer satisfaction and other patronage indicators (Lassar, 1995, p. 12). Thus, an important factor in retail store loyalty is interpersonal relationships between retail salespeople and customers (Macintosh and Lockshin, 1997, p.487-488). Problem-solving: Problem solving addresses handling of returns, exchanges and complaints. The problem solving dimension of retailers includes: willingness of retailers to handle returns and exchanges, sincere interest in problem and handling customer complaints directly and immediately (Mehrabian, 1974; Zeithaml, 1988). General policy: This dimension captures aspects of service quality that are directly influenced by retailers’ policy. It includes high quality merchandise, convenience of parking and operating hours as well as accepting major credit cards. Intangibles can also reflect the specific norms and values of a company, e.g. its codes of conduct and corporate narratives (Edvardsson and Enquist, 2002, p. 115). The importance of interactions between the service and its customers is well recognized within the s ervices marketing literature and they are known as ‘moments of truth’. Each moment of truth is an opportunity for the customer to evaluate the quality of the service that he or she is provided with (Duy Nhat at al, 2007, p.16). Processes that lie to the left of the line of visibility represent the back office mechanisms required to deliver the service to the customer. These processes also have an important effect on the perceived quality of the service (Lings, 1999, p. 454). RSQS has been used by some researchers in measuring service quality in certain types of retailers such as department stores, supermarkets and discount stores. Retail Service Quality Scale (RSQS) had been successfully adapted and validated in a retail store environment. A retail store experience involves more than a non-retail service experience in terms of customers negotiating their way through the store, finding the merchandise they want, interacting with several store personnel along the way, and returning merchandise, all of which influence customers’ evaluations of service quality (Mehrabian, 1974; Zeithaml, 1988). . The Retail Service Quality Scale (RSQS) scale provides information on how the customers (both internal and external) perceive the quality of the service with which they are provided. Where the customer is not satisfied with the service, information 28 from the Retail Service Quality Scale (RSQS) measures can be used to create specific targets for the supplier (Lings, 1999, p. 456).

Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Research Paper Example Statesmen and stateswomen must not fear economic damage and use scientific data in debating on solutions, like to compel states in being bound by agreements on climate change. Important to effective talks on the plans is a deeper understanding of the issue. Dowdeswell is correct that world leaders could not craft anti-climate change measures because they guard national interests and they recognize the value of the fossil fuel industry to the economies of their countries. The author tells that leaders protecting country interests resist actions to climate change if these would badly affect their economies (par. 4), and I think this is true in countries with resources that are important globally, such as the Middle East which is a world oil source. I also see that it is natural for leaders to allow the fossil fuel industry to pollute their countries and worsen climate change because their economies thrive and thus benefit from them. After all, the science of climate change is ignored a nd â€Å"attacked by fossil fuel industries† (par.

Analyzing the Statement of Cash Flows Assignment

Analyzing the Statement of Cash Flows - Assignment Example Therefore, Net Income is the position of a company’s business based on matching incomes versus expenditure but cash flow will only reflect actual movement of money without any considerations for the accruals (Epstein, 2014). A comparison of the Cash from operating activities to the Net Income for techno in 2008 stands at a ratio of 177,387/242,329= 0.73 and 2009 stands at 24,525/316,354= 0.08. Therefore, Techno had a 73% rate in 2008 and it dropped to 8% in 2009. This is a low quality income showing a great imbalance. The time taken to convert any credits or accruals to cash is stretching an indication of a pending problem that may lead to crippled operations. The first red flag is the declining number of receivable from $-49,704,000 in 2008 to $-288,174,000 in 2009. This deterioration is emphasized by a minimal decline in inventory over the two years. The Net Income figure is also overrated because the Accrued liabilities have almost doubled over the two years which puts the company at a delicate position if the creditors demand instant payment ((Epstein, 2014)). This position would not be the same in 2008 because the Cash from Operating Activities $177,387,000 was enough to cover the accrued liabiliti es of $41,079,000. Techno has also engaged in heavy borrowing both in short-term and Long-term in 2009 to probably support the business from the weak position confirmed by the declining ratio between a 73% rate in 2008 and it dropped to 8% in

Care plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Care plan - Essay Example After her diagnosis of the aforementioned health problems, she also lost her income source. At a certain instance, she was identified to have experienced a fall and was lying in her kitchen for approximately forty-eight hours, as reported by her neighbour. Her records also depict that she has a daughter who used to visit her twice in a month. In lieu of this case study, the discussion henceforth will aim at developing a care plan with the objective of offering elderly people with adequate assistance on the grounds of sociability, depression, physical health problems, loneliness and other health related issues. In accordance with the case, the healthcare facility will majorly aim at offering Mrs. Jones with healthcare services in relation to her risk of short term health troubles such as cold (hypothermia), constipation and fear of mobility. Notably, with this concern, due significance will be rendered towards implementing the guidelines suggested by the Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) and by using the Roper, Logan and Tierney (RLT) activities of living model. Assessment In nursing, there are many conceptual models which provides the basic framework in accordance with which nurses should evaluate and formulate plans as well as implement those plans with the objective to offer the patients with better care facilities and services (Nicol, 2013; Timmins & McCabe, 2008). Roper, Logan and Tierney (RLT) Activities of Living Model The RLT model has been formulated with the aim of supporting elderly people with adequate care and improving their psychological as well as physical conditions to enjoy a healthy living. Nurses, with the assistance of RLT model, are quite likely to be facilitated with the opportunity of offering individualised care services to ageing people (Nicol, 2013; Coyne & et. al., 2010). Additionally, this model has been undertaken with the intention of determining the issues or problems which are faced by Mrs. Jones. This model will aid nurses in offering adequate and effective services to the patient with the aim of improving her health problems as well as psychological conditions (Timmins, 2005). A problem solving approach has been adopted likewise, with the intention of devising appropriate care services. There are five concepts under this model which include the following: The 12 Activities of Living (ALs) The 12 activities of living signify the activities which are executed by every individual, irrespective of the individual’s health conditions. The 12 activities have been presented in the diagram below: Roper, Logan and Tierney’s activities of living (ALs) Source: (Dingwall, 2010) The influence of lifespan (age) The component implies that individuals pass through development phase from conception to death. The individuals throughout their life span are determined to witness and adapt change in their physical, social as well as cognitive developments (Dingwall, 2010; Singh & Misra, 2009). Accordingly, it c an be observed from the case scenario that Mrs. Jones is a widow of eighty years of age and used to reside lonely in her home. However, prior to her diagnosis from frequent fall and severe osteo-arthritis, Mrs. Jones used to visit social club to play Bingo with her next door neighbour. The influence of the dependence-independence continuum The dependence-independence continuum assists in determining the activities which are carried out by individuals. The activities of individuals are based on

Nano tecnolgy Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Nano tecnolgy - Research Paper Example Theoretically, the ability to construct multiple devices that maintain components of nano-scale would make it feasible to install, literally, billions of different minute-size transistors onto only a single chip that are able to operate at gigahertz frequencies (Drexler). Such chips represent the physical technology of nano-tech that have the capability of producing valuable information machinery. It was in the early 2000s that the functionality and opportunities of nanotechnology came into the forefront of the scientific community consciousness. In the year 2000, American President Bill Clinton enacted the National Nanotechnology Initiative which provided federal funding for nanotechnology research and development. This funding represented a $422 million budget allocated toward this research, illustrating a massive 56 percent funding increase from 1999 (Roukes 2002). This prompted the launch of 30 different nanotechnology research centres in the United States and prompted the development of inter-disciplinary teams to teach and develop nanotechnologies in universities (Roukes). Today, this nano-mania has spread beyond the United States with the European Union committing to a â‚ ¬100 billion investment through the year 2020 (Nanowerk 2012) and Japan investing 750 million USD to facilitate advancement in nanotechnology (The Daily Star 2012). Nanotechnology, theoretically, maintains many different opportunities in multiple domains of knowledge and science. Research is being conducted to utilise nanotechnology in the production of solar cells (for solar energy), to construct what are referred to as nano-pillars designed to contest the rising costs of Silicon commonly utilised in solar energy research. Nano-pillars consist of various nanostructures that are combined together in a lattice formation that is much more efficient in capturing solar light as compared to silicon (Heng 2011). Nanotechnology is also emerging in the medical field for more efficient drug

The book Common Sense by Thomas Paine Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 3

The book Common Sense by Thomas Paine - Essay Example The author is completely against the rule of royals, and believed that in the earlier times there were no kings, and, for the very same reason, there was peace and tranquility among men. But this is not applicable in all ages, as once people get civilized, the question comes about authority and power. The able and the fittest among people urge for superiority and have a want and desire to rule the inferior ones. â€Å"Government by kings was first introduced into the world by the Heathens, from whom the children of Israel copied the custom. It was the most prosperous invention the Devil ever set on foot for the promotion of idolatry†(Paine). So Paine intends to point out that once the government got introduced to the human history, there was a scene of suppression of right and values of the laymen. Pain was of the opinion that, a government or monarchy should not aim at ruling a country or society, but should focus on giving opportunity and space to personal development and gr owth and complete happiness and prosperity of public. Actually, he is completely right on this part, as government should be by the people, for the people, and of the people. A full full-fledged republican outlook, wherein all the common men get what they want in the right proportion is the right thing to be done for the welfare of the common men. Paine writes that human being was born with an equal status and only a tyranny, aristocratic rule or dictatorship could destroy the peace, freedom, and serenity of common man.

Planning and Time Management in ABC, Inc Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Planning and Time Management in ABC, Inc - Essay Example Robbins can analyze present use of time, prioritizing activities, using time management systems and techniques. Carl Robins has been a campus recruiter for ABC, Inc. for six months. Given this short span of time, he successfully recruited several new hires in his first recruitment effort. Carl Robbins hired 15 new trainees to work for Monica Carrolls, the Operations Supervisor. He scheduled a new hire orientation to take place June 15, hoping to have all new hires working by July. On May 15, Monica contacted Carl about the training schedule, orientation, manuals, policy booklets, physicals, drug tests, and a host of other issues, which Carl would coordinate for the new hires. Carl assured Monica that everything would be arranged in time. After Memorial Day, Carl was at his office and pulled out his new trainee file to finalize the paperwork needed for the orientation on June 15. While going through the files, Carl became concerned. Some of the new trainees did not have applications completed or their transcripts on file, and none of them had been sent to the clinic for the mandatory drug screen. He then searched the orientation manuals and found only three copies with several pages missing from each. Management is the process of planning, organising, leading and controlling all phases of business operation in order to achieve the objectives of that organisation. Effective management invariably results in business success, while ineffective management often results in business failure. Using the POLC Model of Management, the key components namely planning, organizing, leading and controlling involves the use of different skills. (Burns, 1978) Carl Robbins was assigned to arrange and prepare the orientation for the new hires. In the context of the case, Robbins is the manager for the task. Planning is an intellectually demanding process because it requires deliberate courses of action where decisions are based on purpose, knowledge and the considerable degree of estimates.     

Project Proposal ( HR & CSR Connection ) Research Paper

Project Proposal ( HR & CSR Connection ) - Research Paper Example It will be beneficial in determining whether the resources at the disposal of the project team are adequate for completing the proposed project successfully. The financial resources required to complete the project successfully are available but they are not adequate. Additional sources of funds will be acquired by obtaining loans from the local financial institutions and other non financial institutions. The technology required is also available and will be useful in ensuring that the project is completed within the budget and time limits that have been set for it. However, some advanced technologies such as software programs for simulation purposes will be leased out from other organizations or purchased from local or international vendors. This is because there is no team in the project that will be tasked with the responsibility of developing software programs. On the other hand, the operations of the existing software within the organization have been determined and all the readily available ones have been found to operate as required in accomplishing their desired objectives. The accessibility to data has already been acquired with the subjects to be interviewed or questioned having already given their consent to participation. The performance of the project will have adequate time to complete which has already been set aside by the management of the organization as covering a period of one year. The topic being covered will enable me to acquire my master degree as it is a requirement in my coursework. It will also enable me to acquire the skills of managing employees and other personnel working for an organization to ensure they assist in the effective attainment of the project’s goals. I will also be able to develop a fostering environment for the workers so that their productivity is augmented due to their increased satisfaction. The project

The Caribbean People Essay Example for Free

The Caribbean People Essay Saladoid culture is a pre-columbian indigenous culture of Venezuela and the Caribbean that flourished from 500 BCE to 545 CE. [1] This culture is thought to have originated at the lower Orinoco River near the modern settlements of Saladero and Barrancas in Venezuela. Seafaring people from the lowland region of the Orinoco River of South America migrated into and established settlements in the Lesser Antilles, Puerto Rico, and Hispaniola. [1] They displaced the pre-ceramic Ortoiroid culture. As a horticultural people, they initially occupied wetter and more fertile islands that best accommodated their needs. These Indigenous peoples of the Americas were an Arawak-speaking culture. Between 500-280 BCE, they immigrated into Puerto Rico and the Lesser Antilles, eventually making up a large portion of what was to become a single Caribbean culture. [edit]Culture Saladoid people are characterized by agriculture, ceramic production, and sedentary settlements. [1] Their unique and highly decorated pottery has enabled archaeologists to recognize their sites and to determine their places of origin. Saladoid ceramics include zoomorphic effigy vessels, incense burners, platters, trays, jars, bowls with strap handles, and bell-shaped containers. The red pottery was painted with white, orange, and black slips. [1] Distinctive Saladoid artifacts are stone pendants, shaped like raptors from South America. These were made from a range of exotic materials, including such as carnelian, turquoise, lapis lazuli, amethyst, crystal quartz, jasper-chalcedony, and fossilized wood. These were traded through the Great and Lesser Antilles and the South American mainland, until 600 CE. [1] The Taino of the Greater Antilles represented the last stage of the Ostionoid cultural tradition. By about AD 1100-1200, the Ostionoid people of Hispaniola lived in a wider and more diverse geographic area than did their predecessors; their villages were larger and more formally arranged, farming was intensified, and a distinctive material culture developed. They developed rich and vibrant ritual and artistic traditions that are revealed in Taino craftsmanship in using bone, shell, stone wood and other media. Social stratification is thought to have become more pronounced and rigid during this period as well. This stage of intensification and elaboration after AD 1100 is known as Taino. The Taino people, as characterized by archaeologists, were not a unified society, and have been categorized into subdivisions according to the degree of elaboration in their artistic and social expression. The Central or Classic Tainos are identified with the most complex and intensive traditions, and are represented archaeologically by Chican-Ostionoid† material culture. They occupied much of Hispaniola, including En Bas Saline. The â€Å"Western† Taino occupied central Cuba, Jamaica, and parts of Hispaniola, and , are also associated archaeologically with the Ostionoid-Meillacan material tradition. The Lucayan Taino lived in the Bahamas, and the â€Å"Eastern† Taino are thought to have lived in regions of the Virgin Islands and the Leeward Islands of the Lesser Antilles. As many archaeologists have emphasized, however, the Taino were but one of the recognizable cultural groups in the Caribbean at the time of contact. They co-existed and interacted with other Ostionan peoples and perhaps even Saladoid-influenced Archaic peoples, such as the Guanahatabey of Cuba and the Caribs of the Lesser Antilles.

Corporate Social Responsibility Essay Example for Free

Corporate Social Responsibility Essay QUESTION 1 A INTRODUCTION â€Å"The best and most successful organisations recognise that they will only prosper in the long term if they satisfy the aspirations of their stakeholders; including customers, suppliers, employees, local communities, investors, governments, public interest and environment groups. To satisfy this intense scrutiny and the demands for greater accountability in society, businesses and other organisations are increasingly recognising the need to measure, track and report on their social and ethical performance.† Ethics in purchasing and supply management can relate to a wide range of issues from doubts about suppliers business procedures and practices to corruption. Decisions on ethics and corporate social responsibility are at the heart of corporate strategy. They particularly influence the purpose of the organisation. By ethics and corporate social responsibility is meant the standards and conduct that an organisation sets itself in its dealings within the organisation and outside with its environment. Ethics is particularly concerned with the basic standards for the conduct of business affairs for example, policy with regard to honesty, health and safety and corrupt practice. Corporate social responsibility has a wider remit to include the organisation’s responsibility beyond the minimum to its employees and those outside the organisation. Topics will vary with each organisation but may include environmental ‘green’ issues, treatment of employees and suppliers, charitable work and other matters related to the local or national community not conforming to approved standards of social or professional behavior; unethical business practices QUESTION 1 B INTRODUCTION The Chartered Institute of Management defines codes of ethics as a set of principles or values, used by organizations to steer the conduct of both the organization itself and its employees, in all their business activities, both internal and in relation to the outside world. Ethical codes go further than most policy statements in that they are focused on matters of right and wrong rather than just on standards of behavior and applies individually as well as collectively to the organsation’s members, and affects its internal affairs as well as those with its external stakeholders. Code of Ethics in Relation to Internal Issue This is a code that applies to all employees involved in the purchasing process within Kyerico. In addition to full compliance with the Kyerico’s General Business Principles, all affected employees shall: 1. ACT HONESTLY AND ETHICALLY * Carry out their duties in an honest and ethical way by ensuring that business policies and practices are aligned with ethical principles. * Maintain the confidentiality of privileged information acquired in the course of their work, except when disclosure has been authorized or is legally obliged. * Act in good faith, responsible, with due care, competence and diligence, without allowing one’s independent judgment to be subordinated. Provide information that is true and not designed to mislead. * Clearly communicate ethical expectations to those with whom they work. * Refrain from using or appearing to use confidential information acquired in the course of one’s work for unethical or illegal advantage either personally or through third parties. * Ensure the integrity of records; including documenting obtained discounts in a proper form. 2. AVOID CONFLICTS OF INTEREST * Avoid actual or apparent conflicts of interest between personal and professional relationships. No actions should be taken and interests outside Kyerico should be avoided that may make it difficult to perform his or her company work objectively and effectively. No direct or indirect financial interest in a supplier or competing company is allowed. * The acceptance of gifts or personal favors of commercial value is not acceptable, which includes invitations to sporting or social events. It is to be made clear to third parties that personal favors can only influence the business relationship negatively and that business decisions are based solely on benefits to Kyerico and not on considerations of past or future personal gain. 3. FOLLOW A FAIR PROCESS TO SELECT SUPPLIERS AND AWARD BUSINESS TO SUPPLIERS * Support the principle of fair competition as a basis for selecting suppliers and awarding business to suppliers. * While considering the advantages to Kyerico of maintaining a continuing relationship with a supplier, avoid any arrangement that could, in the long term, prevent the effective cooperation of fair competition. * Fully comply with the internal purchasing process of purchase requests and purchase orders when awarding business to a supplier. No purchase will be done without a purchase order. * Not share information related to quotes from suppliers with any other supplier at any time. 4. SELECT SUPPLIERS THAT COMPLY WITH HIGH ETHICAL STANDARDS * Select suppliers and award business to suppliers that are committed to act fairly and with integrity towards their stakeholders and that duly observe the applicable rules of the law of the countries they operate in. * Terminate the relationship with suppliers that do not adhere to general Kyerico’s policies for suppliers, like the child labor and forced labor policies. Code of Ethics in Relation to External Issues This is a code that applies to all suppliers dealing with Kyerico. In addition to full compliance with the Kyerico’s General Business Principles, all affected suppliers shall: 5. CHILD LABOUR SHALL NOT BE USED * There shall be no new recruitment of child labour. * Suppliers shall develop or participate in and contribute to policies and programmes which provide for the transition of any child found to be performing child labour to enable her or him to attend and remain in quality education until no longer a child. * Children and young persons under 18 shall not be employed at night or in hazardous conditions. * These policies and procedures shall conform to the provisions of the relevant ILO standards. 6. NO DISCRIMINATION IS PRACTICED * There is no discrimination in hiring, compensation, access to training, promotion, termination or retirement based on race, caste, national origin, religion, age, disability, gender, marital status, sexual orientation, union membership or political affiliation. 7. LIVING WAGES ARE PAID * Wages and benefits paid for a standard working week meet, at a minimum, national legal standards or industry benchmark standards, whichever is higher. In any event wages should always be enough to meet basic needs and to provide some discretionary income. * All workers shall be provided with written and understandable Information about their employment conditions in respect to wages before they enter employment and about the particulars of their wages for the pay period concerned each time that they are paid. * Deductions from wages as a disciplinary measure shall not be permitted nor shall any deductions from wages not provided for by national law be permitted without the expressed permission of the worker concerned. All disciplinary measures should be recorded. * Employment practices such as training or apprenticeship wages, pre-employment fees, deposits, or other practices that effectively lower an employees pay below the legal minimum wage are not permitted. 8. SUPPLIERS’ TREATMENT OF EMPLOYEES * Under no circumstances should suppliers abuse or intimidate, in any fashion, employees * Any disciplinary measures should be recorded. * Suppliers should have a grievance/appeal procedure that is clear, easy to understand and should be given to the employee in writing. * In the event that suppliers employees are unable to read, the grievance/appeal procedure should be read and explained to them by a union representative or another appropriate third party 9. WORKING CONDITIONS ARE SAFE AND HYGIENIC * Suppliers shall provide a safe and hygienic working environment, bearing in mind the prevailing knowledge of the industry and of any specific hazards. Adequate steps shall be taken to prevent accidents and injury to health arising out of, associated with, or occurring in the course of work, by minimising, so far as is reasonably practicable, the causes of hazards inherent in the working environment. * Workers shall receive regular and recorded health and safety training, and such training shall be repeated for new or reassigned workers. * Suppliers shall ensure access to clean toilet facilities and to potable water, and, if appropriate, sanitary facilities for food storage shall be provided. * Accommodation, where provided, shall be clean, safe, and meet the basic needs of the workers. * The supplier observing the code shall assign responsibility for health and safety to a senior management representative. 10. HEALTH AND SAFETY * Suppliers shall ensure a safe and healthy workplace and provide a written safety and health policies and procedures that minimize negative impacts on the workplace environment, reduce work-related injury and illness, and promote the general health of employees. * Suppliers must provide training and adequate equipment to ensure workplace safety practices. * Suppliers should assign responsibility for health and safety to a senior management representative * Suppliers should have appropriate health and safety policies and procedures and these should be demonstrable in the workplace QUESTION 2 Purchase management is the maintenance of an efficient supply chain (from raw materials to manufacturing to customers). It also involves several functions including: finding suppliers, estimating the cost of materials, contracting with suppliers, purchasing materials, negotiating, handling purchasing problems and maintaining purchase records. It is also responsible for controlling the cost of the goods ordered, controlling inventory levels and building strong relationships with suppliers. Employees who serve in this function are known as buyers, purchasing agents, or supply managers There are two major types of purchasing: purchasing for resale (retail and wholesale businesses) and purchasing for consumption (industrial businesses). Effective purchase management is essential to keeping the costs of developing products low and ensuring the development process is fast and productive. Because the process of developing products is so expensive, purchasing must be carefully managed and constantly improved. Several factors are key to effective purchasing management. Among these are: skilled purchasers, cost-effective, quality materials and reliable suppliers.

Early Occupational Therapy Intervention for Schizophrenia

Early Occupational Therapy Intervention for Schizophrenia The Potential value of Early Occupational Therapy Intervention  for Adults with Schizophrenia. Introduction (approx 250 words) In this discussion, we would stress on the importance of occupational therapy in the treatment of schizophrenia and in vocational rehabilitation of schizophrenic adults. The discussions begin with examining the causes and aetiology, prognosis and diagnosis of schizophrenia, the symptoms involved and the general outlook of the treatment. We look at stress factors, genetic vulnerability, deformities in the brain, chemical imbalance in hormones and neurotransmitters in the body, faulty neural connections, increased or decreased size of brain parts, viral infections at foetal stage and pre and post natal complications that can all contribute to schizophrenia. The clinical manifestation of the disease usually shows early onset in male adults and schizophrenia is rare in children and elderly persons. Symptoms of the disease show the presence of hallucinations, delusions, disordered and bizarre thinking, social isolation and extreme suspicion. The various types of intervention programs for treatment and care of schizophrenia are then discussed and these range from pharmacological interventions to psychotherapy such as cognitive behavioural therapy and occupational therapy, family and psychosocial interventions. The different types of interventions including psychological, occupational and clinical have been suggested by the NHS and Department of Health and the role of mental health services has been stressed. The guideline issued by the National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE) suggests the need for care across all stages of the disease with medical attention at the initial acute stage of the disease. Treatment of acute episodes promoting reduction of symptoms and application of tranquilizers have been identified as essential and we discuss in detail the importance of occupation and the role of occupational therapists in aiming to restore a healthy life for schizophrenics. Chapter 1 (approx 1200 words). Aetiology of schizophrenia – Several Factors The cause of Schizophrenia has not yet been conclusively established and several causes have been proposed. The interplay of genetic, behavioural, social and physiological factors may be responsible for the onset of the condition. Changes or deformities in the brain have been held responsible for development of schizophrenia although genetic factors are also important. Schizophrenia seems to run in families and a child born in a family with history of schizophrenia is 10 times more likely to develop the disease than anyone in the general population. Multiple genes are involved in developing a predisposition for schizophrenia although prenatal difficulties like intrauterine starvation or viral infections, peri-natal complications, and various non-specific stressors, seem to influence the development of the condition. However the mechanism of genetic transmission of the disease has not yet been established. Identification of specific genes in the human genome is underway and the strong est evidence suggest chromosomes 13 and 6 are responsible for susceptibility to schizophrenia. Some evidence that schizophrenia is related to imbalance in chemical systems of the brain suggests that neurotransmitters dopamine and glutamate are linked to the onset of the disease. Neuro-imaging studies have found abnormalities in the brain structure of schizophrenics with decreased or increased size of brain parts. However these brain abnormalities are not just present in people with schizophrenia nor are they common for all schizophrenics suggesting that these abnormalities may not have definite links with the disease. The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) has categorised schizophrenia as a developmental disease resulting when neurons form inappropriate connections in the foetal stage of development. However these faulty connections can remain dormant and tend to affect only after puberty when changes in the brain seem to get adversely affected by these dormant faulty connec tions. Certain biochemical changes have been found through brain imaging techniques as preceding the onset of disease so changes in neural circuits as well as molecular changes exploring the genetic basis of brain abnormalities have all been linked as causes of schizophrenia. Recent studies have proved that schizophrenia and other mental ailments are caused by a combination of inherited genetic factors and external environmental factors and all current theories such as the chemical imbalance theory, genetic vulnerability theory, stress and vulnerability theory and complex disease theory reach similar conclusions. The two factors – genetic vulnerability and environmental vulnerability or stress and their effects on the body and brain have been found to play important role in Schizophrenia. Excessive stress, for example can trigger the release of certain hormones and result in increased levels of cortisol in the brain. Excessive cortisol in turn destroys nerve cells in the hippocampus that are responsible for memory and coordinating daily and complex tasks. The NHS emphasises that much of the available research on the aetiology of schizophrenia is consistent with a ‘stress-vulnerability‘ model of the illness (Nuechterlein Dawson, 1984 cited in NHS, 2005),a model which arguably has the greatest utility in integrating current biological,psychological and social findings. This paradigm suggests that individuals possess different levels of vulnerability to schizophrenia, which are determined by a combination of biological, social and/or psychological factors. It is proposed that vulnerability to schizophrenia will result in the development of problems only when environmental stressors are present. If the vulnerability of an individual is sufficiently high, relatively low levels of environmental stress might be sufficient to cause problems. If the vulnerability is much less, problems will develop only when higher levels of environmental stress are experienced. The model is consistent with a wide variety of putative causes of the disorder, as well as the differential relapse and readmission rates observed among people with schizophrenia (NHS report, on Schizophrenia 2005). 1.2 Clinical Presentation of Schizophrenia Early Onset. Schizophrenia is a disabling and chronic mental ailment and has been related to brain disorder. The disorder appears earlier in men and usually affects women later in life. The vulnerable age for the disease is late adolescence to early adulthood in most men and affects men of age 16 to 30 years and women in their late twenties to early thirties. The disease is marked by early onset and is rarely found in older men or children, although such cases of very early or late schizophrenic acute phases have been reported. The disease once affecting an individual can cripple him for a lifetime. People with schizophrenia can have delusions and hallucinations and can even be paranoid that leave them fearful, suspicious and withdrawn. They may be incomprehensible or disorganised in speech and actions and lead a life completely isolated and excluded from social interactions (Schretlen et al. 2000). In most conditions they lose contact with reality and their repeated, meaningless and sometimes wi thdrawn and sometimes aggressive behaviour can be frightening to other individuals. The onset of schizophrenia is marked by withdrawal and shocking changes in behaviour and is accompanied by hallucinations, delusions, paranoia and false personal beliefs and unreal experiences (WHO, 1980). Social isolation and unusual speech or thinking are found in this acute phase of the disease. Chronic schizophrenic symptoms or a continuing or recurring pattern of illness in a patient signifies the necessity for long term treatment including medication and the patient may even fail to recover normal functioning. 1% of the population has been found to have this disease and the NHS and WHO give a statistical data on schizophrenia and we will be providing here. Sometimes people with symptoms of schizophrenia may show depressive mood or bipolar disorder and in some cases individuals may be diagnosed with schizophrenia like symptoms also known as schizoaffective disorder. 1.3 Early Intervention Service Occupational Therapy (Core Skills). Comparing the effectiveness of skills training with occupational therapy, Liberman et al (1998) studied community functioning of outpatients with persistent forms of schizophrenia after the patients were treated with psychosocial and occupational therapy or given social skills training conducted by paraprofessionals. For the study 80 outpatients with persistent schizophrenia were randomly selected and received psychosocial occupational therapy or skills’ training for 12 hours every week for 6 months and this was followed by 18 months of case management in the community. Antipsychotic medication was also given by psychiatrists. The results of the study indicated that patients who received skills training showed greater independent living skills during a 2 year follow up of everyday community functioning. Liberman et al concluded that skills training can be effectively conducted by paraprofessionals with durability and generalization greater than that achieved by occupational th erapists who provide patients with psychosocial occupational therapy. Whitwell (2001) discuss early intervention as a strategy in the treatment of mental illness carried out by specialised and innovative projects and approaches. Early intervention approaches have grown rapidly in the last decade as it has been observed that schizophrenia reaches a peak of severity after 2-5 years of its onset and after this the disability remains the same or decreases , also known as the ‘plateau effect’ (McGlashen 1988). Most people remain untreated for the first 1 or 2 years of the onset of illness and when left untreated, the illness set out biological, psychological and social processes that add to the chronicity of the illness and the illness may actually become toxic triggering chemical changes in the brain. The ‘critical period’ hypothesis or the necessity to intervene and treat the condition early is essential for developing newer insights into the nature of the illness (Birchwood et al 1998).Early intervention is the strategy for trea ting psychotic illnesses during its early stages of development, involving shortening the duration of untreated psychosis and may also involve intervention even before the psychosis develops. Early intervention with flexible and assertive approach on the part of occupational therapists is important in full recovery or prevention of the disease. Chapter 2 (approx 2500 words), To evaluate the effects of schizophrenia on the individuals occupational performance 2.1 The Occupational Nature of Humans. Occupation of a human being refers to the role a person plays or an activity through which a person earns money or livelihood. With the emergence of occupational science and the realisation of health benefits of occupational engagement, there is a necessity for increased research into the occupational nature of humans. Chugg and Craik (2002) argue that engaging in occupations have a positive effect on an individual’s health and sense of well being, although in schizophrenia there is a decreased volition and reduction in occupation with lowered performance. Their study focused on the influences on occupational engagement for people with schizophrenia living in a particular community. They used semi-structured interviews and qualitative analytic approach. 4 male and 4 female participants aged 23 to 49 years described their occupational engagement and the associated influences. Content analysis along with coding was used to categorise the data and four main themes on health, rout ine, external and internal factors emerged from the study. The specific factors identified within these themes are medication, daily schedules, family, staff, work, self concept and life challenges. The role of occupational therapists to influence clients with schizophrenia to engage more successfully in occupations has been highlighted in the study. Wilcock (1999) claim that the relationship between occupation and health and well being of an individual is very complex and can be described in many ways. Wilcock claims that the definition of occupation that appear to appeal a wide range of people is a synthesis of doing, being and becoming. Wilcock reflects on a dynamic balance between doing and being which is central to healthy living and wellness and suggests that becoming what a person or a community is best suitable for is dependent on both the doing and the being. Doing is what Wilcock suggests, the synonym for occupation and it is not possible to envisage a world without occupation showing the importance and central role of the occupational nature of humans. Being is represented by notions such as nature and essence and encapsulates being true to ourselves and individual capacities in all that we do. Becoming adds to this an element or sense of future and holds in it the notions of transformation and self actualization. Wilc ock emphasises that becoming helps in actually enabling occupation with ideas on human development, growth and potential. The occupational therapists help people to transform their lives through enabling them to do and to be through the process of becoming. Philosophically, thus doing and being are integral to becoming and to occupational therapy, process and outcomes and Wilcock suggests how best to utilize these in self growth, professional practice, student teaching and learning and help individuals to influence a social and global change for healthier lifestyles. 2.2 Occupational Deficits associated with Schizophrenia Bejerholm et al (2004) suggest that schizophrenia is a complex disorder and has severe impacts in daily life. The human occupational pattern is considered as a product of person-occupation-environment interaction and the importance of exploring all these three factors have been stressed as essential to understand the daily occupational patterns among persons with schizophrenia. Bejerholm’s study used data obtained from 10 schizophrenic individuals and examined their time use reflecting on their daily occupations, social and geographical environments, emotional reactions and reflections on their occupational performance. The results of the study indicated stagnation in a participants’ occupational pattern and time use. The authors suggest that most activities by schizophrenics are not triggered by a facilitating environment but happen due to factors inherent in the person triggered by basic and immediate life needs or simply for the need of escaping reality and seeking s ocial isolation. The paper suggests that occupational therapists are capable of assisting people with schizophrenia to help reshaping the environment and help them to regain roles that involved interacting with the external environment. Breier (1998) claims that schizophrenia is characterised by cognitive deficits in several human domains and involve dysfunction in attention, information processing, memory and executive performance. These deficits are observed in family members of schizophrenics as well suggesting a heritable component in the disease. Cognitive deficits also predate the onset of schizophrenia suggesting that core components of schizophrenia are not secondary to medication side effects or to positive or negative symptoms. Cognitive abnormalities tend to predict occupational and social dysfunction is a major determinant of long term outcome. Breier points out that traditional neuroleptic drugs have been proven to be relatively infective for the deficits and atypical antipsychotic drugs may have cognitive properties. One of these antipsychotic agents, olanzapine increases norepinephrine and dopamine in prefronatal cortex and produces mediated disruption in information processing with mixed effects supp orting cognitive enhancing potential. Breier points out that that some recent trails, olanzapine, risperidone and haloperidol when used in comparative trials in early phases of schizophrenia have suggested that olanzapine demonstrates superiority for a number of cognitive domains over other antipsychotic drugs. Atypical drugs are increasingly used for the treatment of schizophrenia and may play even greater roles in the future. 2.3 The Value of Occupational Performance Occupational therapy helps in assessing and remediation of human performance deficits and closely associated with enhancing occupational performance. Occupational performance is measured as the ability to perform tasks that make it possible to carry out occupational roles in a manner appropriate to an individual’s developmental culture, stage of life, and environment. Functional performance is important to occupational therapy and is required for assessment of a person’s level of functioning and for assessing the efficacy of interventions. Occupational functioning measures can be made at various levels of complexity and occupational therapists need to measure the level at which a mentally disabled individual can work. The WHO classifies mental impairments on a functional hierarchy and provides the initial foundation according to which occupational therapists distinguish levels of functioning for various diseases. Lower levels of impairment signify dysfunction of organs and may not be accompanied by any impairment of functional ability. For example in case of diabetes or a related illness, a dysfunction of the pancreas may not involve impairments in occupational performance. Bio-mechanical and physiological aspects of motor performance are measured with the help of devices although measurements of occupational performance are a bit more complex as they involve an appraisal of abilities which can be measured, representing component parts of occupational performance. The importance of each of the component parts or abilities for measuring occupational performance can vary from one individual to another. Disability would usually refer to the inability to perform any particular physical task although m otivational issues are important as these help to overcome disabilities in a person. The highest level of impairment categorized by WHO is a handicap, in which any disability severely impairs a person from performing a social or physical role successfully. Occupational therapists seek ways in handicap patients and help them to overcome performance deficits. However handicap is more of a socially defined phenomena rather than a quantifiable impaired physical ability and not being able to fulfil a social role is a serve problem faced by mentally ill patients, especially in schizophrenia. Occupational therapists tend to restore the social and psychological involvement to an extent in schizophrenic individuals. The measurement of occupational performance needs to be understood in social and individual contexts as also in the context of individual function and development. 2.4 The Relevance of Occupation Occupational performance can be classified into four types according to the use of occupational performance as a generic frame of reference for national medical practice, as a frame of reference for occupational therapy curricula, as a term for the use of occupational therapists to explain practice and the use of occupational therapy to develop assessment tools. The concept of occupational performance is closely associated with therapy as performance indicated purposeful activity and consisted of areas in care, work and leisure activities. Skills in areas of performance are related life space of an individual and include the cultural, social and physical environment. Occupational performance is based on learning, developmental stages of sensory integrative functioning, social functioning, psychological functioning, cognitive functioning and motor functioning. Based on the framework for occupational performance, a consistent occupational therapy model could be developed and the Canadian Association of Occupational therapy outlined the generic conceptual framework of function for occupational therapy to be followed by clients, in work settings and in modes of practice. In general the notion of occupational performance is affirming the worth of a person as an active participant in his or her therapeutic relationship although this concept gets into difficulty for patients with severe mental ailments. The three areas of occupational performance have been described as self care, productivity and leisure activities and four performance components recognised are mental, physical, socio-cultural and spiritual. Townsend et al stated in achieving occupational performance, each individual both influences and is influenced by his or her environment (1997, p.71). 2.5 Early Intervention of Schizophrenia Department of Health objectives, NHS plan and guidelines of the Mental Health National Service Framework The NHS describes schizophrenia as a mental illness with substantial short and long term consequences for individuals, family, health and clinical services and society. One in hundred people experience schizophrenia in their lifetime with highest incidence of the disease in late teens and early 20s. People with schizophrenia suffer distress and long term disability and there is a lot of accompanied stigma and prejudice involved with the disease that can have negative effects on employment, relationships and life satisfaction. A person’s family is completely destroyed with schizophrenia and carers and family members also carry the burden of the disease and caring the person for a long time. A schizophrenic family member can be a stress to the entire family. Schizophrenia costs the NHS more than any other mental illness and consumes more than 5% of the NHS budget as it is associated with a loss of income causing serious personal, medical, social and economic problems. Stigmatiza tion, and discrimination is associated with schizophrenia and occur in wider society and diagnosis of the disease can have serious implications for a person’s career or social life. Even within the NHS, individuals with schizophrenia can receive substandard no psychiatric care as a result of professional ignorance and prejudice. However guidelines provided by the NHS are essential for improving services and provisions for schizophrenics. The NHS, DH and NICE guidelines for schizophrenia can be given as follows Schizophrenia: Core interventions in the treatment and management of schizophrenia in primary and secondary care, outlines best practice for health professionals caring for individuals with schizophrenia in a range of areas, including: Care across all stages (for example, the importance of working in partnership with service users and carers, and offering treatment in an atmosphere of hope and optimism) Initiation of treatment (for example, the development of early intervention services to provide appropriate care for people with suspected or newly diagnosed schizophrenia) Treatment of acute episodes (for example, the use of antipsychotic drugs as part of a comprehensive package of care that addresses the individuals clinical, emotional and social needs) Promoting recovery (for example, the use of psychological interventions such as cognitive behavioural therapy to prevent relapse and reduce symptoms) Rapid tranquillisation (for example, minimising factors that might increase need for rapid tranquillisation and outlining the principles health professionals should follow) The guideline has been developed by the National Collaborating Centre (NCC) for Mental Health. The recommendations in the schizophrenia guideline given by the NICE (National Institute for Clinical excellence- NHS) cover psychological treatments, treatment with medicines, and how best to organise mental health services in order to help people with schizophrenia. The guideline concentrates on services for adults of working age with schizophrenia and not on schizophrenia in childhood or schizophrenia starting in later life . The guideline also does not cover diagnosis and assessment tools in detail. It outlines the kind of treatment (medicines and psychological therapy) and services are of most help to people with schizophrenia, and whether treatment should be given as an outpatient, by a community mental health team, as an inpatient or in any other mental health service. It also outlines the role of GPs in managing and treating schizophrenia. The Specific aims of the guideline of NICE and NHS on Schizophrenia are given below: Source: NHS report on Schizophrenia treatment and Interventions guidelines Source: NHS, 2005 The NHS report points out that the treatment and management of schizophrenia took place in large asylums in earlier times although government policy initiated a programme to change this practice and this has been largely possible by the introduction of conventional antipsychotic drugs such as chlorpromazine, thioridazine, haloperidol. The NHS mentions several interventions methods such as pharmacological treatment, psychological interventions, service level interventions, primary-secondary care interface, physical health care, and skills training as effective for treatment and support for schizophrenic individuals. We would discuss these methods of intervention in the next chapter. Chapter 3. A Critical Analysis of Early Interventions used by Occupational therapists. 3.1 Psychosocial intervention Mueser and McGurk (2004) define Schizophrenia as a mental illness that is among world’s top ten causes of long term disability. The symptoms of schizophrenia include psychosis, apathy and withdrawal, cognitive impairment and these can lead to associated problems in social and occupational functioning as also problems with self-care. They also give the percentage of affected population at 1% across different countries, cultural groups and sexes. Mueser and McGurk point out that the illness develops between the ages 16 and 30 years and persists throughout the adult’s lifetime. Reiterating that the cause of schizophrenia is largely unknown, the authors claim that genetic factors, early environmental influences and obstetric complications, social factors such as poverty can contribute to the illness. Although pathophysiological differences exist in a wide range of brain structures , no biological alterations are symptomatic or pathognomic of schizophrenia. As for interventi on methods, the authors emphasize that antipsychotic medication is the mainstay for managing schizophrenia although a range of other psychosocial treatments such as family intervention, supported employment and occupational therapy, cognitive behavioural therapy for psychosis, social and skills training, teaching illness self management skills, assertive community treatment and other forms of integrated treatment for co-occurring substance abuse are equally important. In this section we would discuss several intervention methods and approaches highlighting on the three important ones including the broader category of psychosocial intervention, skills training and pharmacologic or medical treatments. Schizophrenia is a chronic disorder that can affect an individual during the early adult years or adolescent period of life. It is usually marked by acute and sometimes frequent relapses. In acute conditions, the main treatment method is controlling the symptoms and this is done with the application and administration of antipsychotic medication, psychotherapy and counselling and a variety of other methods. Antipsychotic medication prescribed by psychiatrists is the most common form of treatment and both older typical medication as well as newer anti-psychotics are used which are usually taken by the patient once in every two to four weeks. Injections given are usually thought to improve effectiveness of medication. Newer atypical anti-psychotics are generally used for acute episodes although there is very little evidence that they prevent relapses. Talking treatments and therapies involve meetings with therapists, general support and advice on illness and some deeper analysis may al so be involved. However certain types of therapies may not be effective treatments of acute symptoms although they may help in particular problems as in vocational rehabilitation or occupational therapy who are helped to learn self help skills and given vocational training or aided to get back to earlier work. Antipsychotic medication is sometimes given in combination with occupational and other types of therapy although these drugs may have many long term side effects. Typical anti psychotics were known to cause disorders in movement although the newer varieties may have other side effects such as weight gain. Talking therapies along with medication can help improve compliance with the antipsychotic medication given and increase general knowledge about the illness making patients more aware of their condition. Patients are usually treated by a team of professionals comprising of psychiatrists, occupational therapists, social workers and nurses. Community psychiatric nurses or CPNs treat outpatients and provide both therapeutic and medical help. Social workers tend to address family problems and related issues. Vocational rehabilitation is given by occupational therapists, psychiatrists give medical help and advice and clinical psychologists usually undertake psychotherapy and engage in talking cure remedial measures. Occupational therapy is skilled treatment helping affected individuals to achieve independence in all areas of life. Occupational therapy he

Roe V. Wade Essay -- essays research papers

January 23, 2000 marked the twenty-seventh anniversary of the Roe v. Wade case. It all started out in a small town in Texas where a woman under the alias Jane Roe filed a case in district court for a woman’s right to choose abortion. At this time law in Texas prohibited abortion. Eventually the case moved to Supreme Court. The attorneys for Roe argued that the law was unfair and unjust. They said that the unborn fetus id not a real person. They pointed out that a women should have the right to control their own life and body. They said it was a right of privacy and if women fell that it’s the right choice to abort a baby they should be allowed to make it. They also said that women should be able to abort a baby if the birth of the baby would endanger the life of the mother or the baby, they should have a right to abort it. They also argued that women have fundamental right to abortion. The case, which was filed in District Court, was filed against Dallas District attorney Wade. Wade strongly opposed abortion he believed abortion was murder. Wade made the point that Fetus is human being and has right to life under the law. He also argues that the fetus is life upon conception. He said that abortion hurts women not only physically but psychologically. Abortion can result pain, discomfort, and unstable metal conditions. According to the fourteenth amendment a person has an undeniable right to freedom. They stated that the fetus has a right to freedom guaranteed by this amen...

How effective is Dahls use of subtext in his short stories? :: English Literature

How effective is Dahl's use of subtext in his short stories? Subtext is anything that is indirectly communicated to the reader. It can be conveyed in many ways, such as sounds, objects, jokes, colours and temperatures. Subtext expresses a meaning in a subliminal manner. In Roald Dahl's short stories he uses subtext to display the meanings and feelings that are hidden. In 'The Landlady' Dahl uses subtext to convey the true evil behind the landlady's homely exterior. The animals in the boarding house are thought of to be a good feature. 'Animals were usually a good sign in a place like this'. This is ironic because the animals are dead and stuffed. When Billy Weaver first walked into the house he noticed that there was only his coat in the hallway. 'There were no other hats or coats in the hall'. This is subtext because it suggests that the house is empty. Subtext can also be suggested through temperature. All the way through the story, temperature is used subtextually to suggest meanings and feelings. The weather outside was cold. A cold temperature is subtext for death. 'The air was deadly cold and the wind was like a flat blade of ice', this is pathetic fallacy because it is typical horror genre weather. Inside the house heat is used to cover up the coldness of death. 'A bright fire burning' is used to make the house seem warm. The cups of tea are used in the same way. When Billy goes to the house the landlady appears very quickly, 'like a jack-in-the-box'. This indicates that she was waiting for him to arrive. Furthermore it seems as if she has prepared everything for him in advance. In other words she knew the point when he was going to arrive. The landlady says 'we have it all to ourselves'. She also talks about her guests in the past tense. Therefore it is suggested that the guests are no longer there. The landlady is an unconventional monster in this horror story. 'She looked exactly like the mother of one's best school-friend' explains that this woman seemed sweet and familiar to Billy. Her role in the story is reversed when it is revealed that she is in fact a cold killer. The landlady acts very strangely towards Billy, 'her blue eyes travelled slowly all the way down the length of Billy's body'. The landlady's ayes are described as blue. Blue eyes are not usually associated with evil so this makes her seem an irregular villain in the story. The way she looks at him suggests a wicked look but the 'blue eyes' eliminates the evil.

Oedipus is Deserving of his Suffering :: essays research papers

Question: Sir John Sheppard comments that Oedipus behaves normally, commits an error in ignorance and brings suffering upon himself. He declares that "Oedipus suffers not because of his guilt, but in spite of his goodness.† What is your opinion of this comment? I disagree with this statement. To a certain extend, I think Oedipus’s suffer is what he deserved. No one can be held fully responsible for actions committed under some kind of external constraint, and for the case of Oedipus, such constraint might be exerted by god. But it does not mean that Oedipus suffers not because of his guilt, but of his goodness, because Oedipus is responsible for those actions which are not performed under constraint. Oedipus has choices, but every time he chooses the wrong one even he knew that the one he chose will turn out to be bad. He still chooses this road to certain extend, is because of his arrogant pride. I think the events of the play are Oedipus fault. Oedipus makes important mistakes or errors in judgment that lead to this ending. His pride, blindness, and foolishness all play a part in the tragedy that befalls him. Oedipus's pride leads to the story's tragic ending. He is too proud to consider the words of the prophet Teiresias, choosing, instead to rely on his own investing powers. Teiresias warns him not to pry into these matters, but pride in his intelligence leads Oedipus to continue his search. Oedipus thinks he can change fate. He just tries to ignore it, because he counts on his own ability to root out the truth. Oedipus is a clever man, but he is blind to the truth and refuses to believe Teiresias's warnings. He suffers because of his hamartia. I t is this excessive pride fuels his own destruction. I would just say Oedipus is a tragic hero. Foolishly he leaves his home in Corinth without further investigating the oracle's words. à ¼ The vanity of Oedipus is latent when he travels, against warnings, to the oracle of Delphi. His inflated notions of his stature as ruler directly question the authority of the gods. He goes to the oracle then leaves without an answer. Finding out his true father is important because he has just been told he will kill his father. Oedipus is not intelligent about the way he conducts himself.

Literary Semiotics

Literary Semiotics Quite often the terms semiotics and semiology are equal, so that often instead semiotics use semiology and vice versa. Ferdinand de Saussure speaks of the sign and the first makes the distinction between semiotics and semiology. Semiotics is the general theory of signs. Semiology study the functioning of the sign in the social practice. Today avoids this distinction and semiotics equate with semiology, ie, they are synonyms. GENERAL Semiotics: The sign does not exist only in language and literature, but in the film we have and tone as a sign, signs of the folk tradition (clouds as signs, etc.. . The sign is a general phenomenon that exists in all forms of human communication. With the help of the sign announce something. The sign communication across borders communion. It is believed that she sign communication has with animals, plants etc.. Within the general linguistic information and communication there is the literary form of communication between author and r eader, between the work and the reader etc.. Semiotics is shared:First Semantics – which focuses on the relationship between sign and signified; Second Pragmatics – is a discipline that focuses on the relationship between the sign and the reader; Third Syntax, syntax – is a discipline that focuses on the relationship between signs, eg. : Texts as signs books as characters. Semiotics makes several typologies and distinguishes several types of sign systems: First PRIRODOJAZICHNI SYSTEMS – define them as first-and include natural languages, ie national languages (English, French, etc. ).. These are the languages that are characterized by a specific practice use.In these systems each character is in relation to an object (reference) from the reality. Not all characters are specified, does not always mean only objects that exist, which are in reality, but there are also abstract, metaphysical signs that signify something that is not tangible, but still exist s in our consciousness. Second Artificial sign systems – Artificial signs we have in mathematics, science and so on. These signs are called artificial, because they agreed. These include road signs, sign language of the deaf, blind etc.. => Structure is a way of organizing systems.System and structure are inseparable. Third Secondary, secondary sign systems – usually build on existing linguistic systems and does not always refer to things that exist in nature. Literature uses natural language to translate literary, coding, etc. All secondary languages have pre-need of natural language and together constitute some already performed sign systems, such as. Literature. Secondary sign system eg. Myth – iconic, pictorial system. 4th Mixed HIBRIDIZIRANI SIGNS – eg. Essay which combines prirodojazichen system and a secondary sign system and pictorial system. th METAJAZICI – Metajazichni systems, metalanguage thoughts when one language describes another ki nd of language that is already built, eg. Theory of literature has described the literary language. There are meta-meta languages, such as literary criticism, literary methodology etc.. Semiotics distinguished: linguistic and nejazichni signs, verbal and non-verbal. Semiotics distinguishes several types of signs: First -Symbols – symbols are all coded signs and they denotativni. These signs have a high degree of codification and konvencionalnost. In these signs the relationship between the sign and the signified is kodiviciran.Second Sign-image – in these signs the relationship between sign and signified is vividly. Iconic signs konotivni signs. The model has features of artistic creation. Third Sign-INDEX – among them the relationship between sign and signified is causal. These signs are generally semiotic. Example: Where there is smoke there is fire. Among them there is a logical connection that occurs as a result of long-term perception. Eg. before an earthqu ake occurs, animals are disturbed, I felt mean. Also, prior to such disasters, we get information, warnings from other planets. All this belongs to indeksnoto information.Semiotics differs constant and variable signs. The sign indicates the object replaces the subject. Therefore, the sign is viewed by the subject marks. To sign appears must e apostoi need an item to be replaced, to signify. Roman Jakobson describes knizhenosta literary self-referential aesthetic message. Piece of literature at the same time can be referential (aesthetic) and referential. Znakovnosta literature does not exhaust WMO interest signified. The sign is a complex composition (signifier + signified). With signs serving entities, transferring to other entities, which means that there must be an agreement.In literature, there is a higher level of esthetics, but this does not exclude pragmatism. While eg. in journalism, a higher degree of pragmatism, but it does not necessarily mean that there is no aesthetic. There is intertextuality. For example, the parody – there parodiziranje literary work that already exists, we mythema, whose basic text comes from another, previously written text hipotekst. Even in the literature have metajazichnost yet dominate vtorostepenosta. It should be noted and the consideration that relates to the fact that there is a difference between literary and linguistic systems.Some systems faster change, others more slowly. Systems include konvencionalizirani relations imply a certain constancy legality. Speech is practice the kind of language use. Linguistic system is slowly changing. A change in the system of language comes when occurring changes in the conventional system. The change in the lexicon is not a real change in the language, but the change in syntax is a real change, because the syntax is a mirror of the language, it is the soul, the essence of language. In the 20th century resulting rapid and radical changes in literary systems, and in language systems can not change for centuries.Literary system as a secondary Literary Semiotics Systems vary in degree modelativnata power. Systems have a high degree of first instance modelativna power and appeal have lower degree modelativna power. Literature is not that important (secondary) sign system. In the literature, the language system is reorganized in a different way, because prirodojazichniot system is already encoded, he once again coded in the literature, which means that the literary system is doubly coded. = CODE = Code means is prohibited and what is not. The term â€Å"code† is not a purely literary term, but comes from egzaknite sciences (mathematics, computer science).Code shows us the optimal boundary between the forbidden and permitted. Modelativnata power is the ability to present a subject in the form of linguistic or literary figure. The model is a picture of the items indicating displays a single character. Model of the object is displayed in a text can be closer to the world that displays, but can be distant. Therefore, some characters are considered to be relatively more realistic poreferencijalni, open to predmetmetot and others are considered less referential, hermetic and more confined to the subject.Structure prirodojazichniot sign implies a direct connection between the sign and the referent. A literary system that relationship between the sign and the object is indirect, and even invisible. When reading the signs, the whole array of interpretenti that are sorted from other sign with any reader pbuduva whole range of different images, each reader think differently. For example, the term â€Å"Company† each poimuva different: one has a no house, stone house, ruined house, a beautiful house, a house-snail, small house, white house etc.. Models, the image of the subject in the literature represents what must exist, what can be absent.Ordinary language signs poreferencijalni, because the connection between the sign and the m atter may be provieri, and in literature it has not. Some literary characters completely reject referentiality and identify as nereferencijalni or auto-referential. They completely distracted by the relationship between the sign and object, life, the world, etc.. But after Mallarme annulling all those links, they are invisible, and even signs can not signify anything other than themselves. These marks signify themselves and thus resolve the question of the definition of the sign that always means something that exists outside of them.These characters have their origin and their long-lasting tradition. Repealed logical connections between them, or at least invisible at first glance. There are literary characters to a greater extent referential and such that auto-referential, that encourage thinking the sign, except the exact information they want to offer something more to the subject, ie the world who represent; those signs tend to have a broader, more universal information how orga nized life and the world. In the literary system is activated principle sozvuchnost musicality, that activates the eneral signification semiotichnost, which plays a major role in the formation of literary texts that it does not matter what you say, but how you say. There are two completely identical words. Ordinary linguistic signs are distinguished by a high degree of symmetry between the object and the sign by which that object is marked. These signs are harder legible because they distort the image of a world that is marked with this sign; while doing so because of the asymmetry between the sign and the object, ie the world; not think of anything specifically. Literary system is: First secondary, secondary;Second double coded; Third iconic, picturesque, with a high degree modelativnost; 4th relationship between the object and the sign is asymmetric; 5th shows interest in the character and high degree of auto-and at the same time and communication and information. It is believed t hat all these properties of the literary system, its structure shows in a nutshell – the tropics. It is believed that ordinary language tends to conventionalize be used automatically, but literary-art information tends to be something more than mere information. In this sense, ordinary expressions have low informativnost.The purpose of literature is constantly questioned images umrtvile forgotten language, and it achieves when they express will deliver another new context and text and no more primates using automated. What's old, already seen, automated, predictable, does not carry much information. But when you make a transformation, modification context, the degree of unpredictability gives it clear that there is some degree of artistic expression. What is stereotypically can perform literary function only when you are questioned and it will say something new, unknown, unpredictable.In literary communication is very important reader that fits into his measure expectation is already known, conventional, and what exceeds this measure is shocking and purely literary. To develop the system, it should be constantly introduce changes that will have a radical character. It is believed that the literary system is a complex system, because it is simultaneously modelativen iconic communicative, informative etc.. STRUCTURE AND LITERARY-artistic structure The term structure is taken from disciplines that have the exact character. This term means the constitution, construction, structure, composition.Can speak of a connection between the structure and the system (composition pragma). Pragma-linguistic semantic __ decorative what is encountered in all literary genres. Literary form is prezentativen. There is a prejudice that oako speaks of structure, must be taken only strucuturalist method. Strucuturalist method of studying literature immanent – within, regardless of external factors. Structure – nestatichna. This term has its prehistory and predstru kturalistichkiot method. Promotes the emergence of Saussure, then in Prague structuralists in 30 years (Roman Jakobson).The structure is a way of organizing a race, when you are thinking of something dynamic, live outdoors. But it always is a minimum order, which can be viewed transhistoric outside of literature. It shows anthropology and linguistics. Distinguished two levels of understanding society. Archetypal structures – which manifests Oedipus, infanticide, Phaedra, and it asa eglavno negative occurrence. They are constantly renewing, changing WMO their name, the essence is the same. When speaking of the structure, not thinking assemblies, but the relationship between these parts that are different relations.The structure is latent given, you need to be activated to express a given relationship. It is not a material category, but a correlation between at least two parts, as part of one great whole. There must be a ratio of that unit which is higher than those who own par ts. The label may not mean anything. Even the sign is a higher instance. It establishes relations between the sign and the signified. The context shows us how the text structures and includes the subject, as well as the channel through which they passed.The structure is separable elements that make up the parts that build a third instance. It is not equal to the sum of those parts. The idea of structure has its own continuum from Plato onwards. When speaking of a literary work of art can not change the way the author laid the parts. Work itself has a rigid structure, there is coherence. Any literary work of art has a minimum structure, within a text is completed. Structure does not exhaust in terms of the text itself, but continues in the relations between texts that are external.The internal structure is latent, but in proportion with the reader that changes its character. Structure becomes external, opens to a text read in a social context of a given epoch. It opens towards the c ategory of value, ie toward non-literary categories participating in the reader and the author. The text-reader-author is different in the written and oral tradition. In oral literature there is a collective, multidisciplinary artist, oral text is intended for a different kind of reception kolektiviet (holidays protakularni religious rites). The novel is an individual kind.It introduces a new relation to the adoption of the text (information and understanding). In everyday communication relationships are different speakers-reader known. In the literary work of art speaks of aesthetic structure – art. That does not mean that it is polisemantichka multifunctional (educational, ethnic, linguistic, fun, social). Linguistic literary system implies certain conventions. The literary structure is composed of text and context (genre code metajazichnosta all types of channels, psychological, biographical, biological factors).Literary structure implies something conditionally given (tex t). Contextual factors – open. The text is the primary datum in the literature. He builds with just reading and valued. Ultimately, it ends in a new value. Text Literary and artistic text Textus Lat. textus = texture, fabric, specific kind of tissue taken from the material environment and ported in the literature. Text – a literary work of art and represents graphic zvukoven part of the work. It is unchangeable part, material, literary and artistic work that is more complex, consisting of immaterial part style.Literary-may be in oral and written (literary) form. Text changes its status through history is part of the moral language conventions. The text is also linked to the development of human civilization. Associated with civilization signs. Each text is articulated and systematized, it is to communicate with him. The author (individual or collective) and the sign, by linking the text for a long time, and the reader was switched off. Today is considered that the read er can influence those literary conventions. Differences between the literary work of art and literary and artistic text.The text is considered an open category, sign, while the work is closed category, the whole classic with reduced significance. It is a theory of Roland Barthes and structuralists in France. Variability of the text seen in the oral tradition. Textuality is as fixed as a material part of the work. Each text serves not only to inform, but also to communicate. Text as a cultural and artistic means authorship readers act vrednvuanje denial and others. Cultural and artistic text linking at least two dimensions – historical and artistic ontological. There are literary and non-literary texts.

Places and Manner of Articulation in English

| PLACES OF ARTICULATION The active articulator usually moves in order to make the constriction. The passive articulator usually just sits there and gets approached. A sound's place of articulation is usually named by using the Latin adjective for the active articulator (ending with an â€Å"o†) followed by the Latin adjective for the passive articulator. For example, a sound where the tongue tip (the â€Å"apex†) approaches or touches the upper teeth is called an â€Å"apico-dental†. Most of the common combinations of active and passive articulator have abbreviated names (usually leaving out the active half).These are the abbreviated names for the places of articulation used in English: Bilabial The articulators are the two lips. (We could say that the lower lip is the active articulator and the upper lip the passive articulator, though the upper lip usually moves too, at least a little. ) English bilabial sounds include [p], [b], and [m]. [pic] Labio-dental The lower lip is the active articulator and the upper teeth are the passive articulator. English labio-dental sounds include [f] and [v]. [pic] Dental Dental sounds involve the upper teeth as the passive articulator.The active articulator may be either the tongue tip or (usually) the tongue blade. Dentals are the initial sounds of words ‘thin’ and ‘that’. [pic] Alveolar Alveolar sounds involve the alveolar ridge as the passive articulator. The active articulator may be either the tongue blade or (usually) the tongue tip. English alveolar sounds include [t], [d], [n], [s], [z], [l]. [pic] Post alveolar Post alveolar sounds involve the area just behind the alveolar ridge as the passive articulator. The active articulator may be either the tongue tip or (usually) the tongue blade. English postalveolars include [[pic]r ]. pic] Linguists have traditionally used very inconsistent terminology in referring to the post alveolar POA. Some of the terms you may encounter for it include: palato-alveolar, alveo-palatal, alveolo-palatal, and even (especially among English-speakers) palatal. Many insist that palato-alveolar and alveo (lo)-palatal are two different things — though they don't agree which is which. â€Å"Post alveolar†, the official term used by the International Phonetic Association, is unambiguous, not to mention easier to spell. Palato-alveolar These are produced by two simultaneous articulations: ) the blade of tongue articulates against the teeth ridge. b) The front of tongue is raised towards the hard palate. e. g. initial sounds in words ‘ shampoo’, ‘jug’, ‘cheese’ are palato-alveolar sounds. Palatal The active articulator is the tongue body and the passive articulator is the hard palate. The English glide [j] is a palatal. Velar[pic] The active articulator is the tongue body and the passive articulator is the soft palate. English velars include [k], [g] and also ‘ingâ€℠¢ sound in word ‘knowing’. [pic] Glottal This isn't strictly a place of articulation, but they had to put it in the chart somewhere.Glottal sounds are made in the larynx. For the glottal stop, the vocal cords close momentarily and cut off all airflow through the vocal tract. In [h], the vocal cords are open, but close enough together that air passing between them creates friction noise. [pic] MANNER OF ARTICULATION †¢ Stop, an oral occlusive, where there is occlusion (blocking) of the oral vocal tract, and no nasal air flow, so the air flow stops completely. Examples include English /p t k/ (voiceless) and /b d ? / (voiced). If the consonant is voiced, the voicing is the only sound made during occlusion; if it is voiceless, a stop is completely silent.What we hear as a /p/ or /k/ is the effect that the onset of the occlusion has on the preceding vowel, as well as the release burst and its effect on the following vowel. The shape and position of the tongue (the plac e of articulation) determine the resonant cavity that gives different stops their characteristic sounds. All languages have stops. †¢ Nasal, a nasal occlusive, where there is occlusion of the oral tract, but air passes through the nose. The shape and position of the tongue determine the resonant cavity that gives different nasals their characteristic sounds. Examples include English /m, n/.Nearly all languages have nasals, the only exceptions being in the area of Puget Sound and a single language on Bougainville Island. †¢ Fricative, sometimes called spirant, where there is continuous frication (turbulent and noisy airflow) at the place of articulation. Examples include English /f, s/ (voiceless), /v, z/ (voiced), etc. Most languages have fricatives, though many have only an /s/. However, the Indigenous Australian languages are almost completely devoid of fricatives of any kind. †¢ Affricate, which begins like a stop, but this releases into a fricative rather than hav ing a separate release of its own.The English letters â€Å"ch† and â€Å"j† represent affricates. Affricates are quite common around the world, though less common than fricatives. †¢ Flap, often called a tap, is a momentary closure of the oral cavity. The â€Å"tt† of â€Å"utter† and the â€Å"dd† of â€Å"udder† are pronounced as a flap in North American and Australian English. Many linguists distinguish taps from flaps, but there is no consensus on what the difference might be. No language relies on such a difference. There are also lateral flaps. †¢ Trill, in which the articulator (usually the tip of the tongue) is held in place, and the airstream causes it to vibrate.The double â€Å"r† of Spanish â€Å"perro† is a trill. Trills and flaps, where there are one or more brief occlusions, constitute a class of consonant called rhotics. †¢ Approximant, where there is very little obstruction. Examples include Eng lish /w/ and /r/. In some languages, such as Spanish, there are sounds that seem to fall between fricative and approximant. †¢ One use of the word semivowel, sometimes called a glide, is a type of approximant, pronounced like a vowel but with the tongue closer to the roof of the mouth, so that there is slight turbulence.In English, /w/ is the semivowel equivalent of the vowel /u/, and /j/ (spelled â€Å"y†) is the semivowel equivalent of the vowel /i/ in this usage. Other descriptions use semivowel for vowel-like sounds that are not syllabic, but do not have the increased stricture of approximants. These are found as elements in diphthongs. The word may also be used to cover both concepts. †¢ Lateral approximants, usually shortened to lateral, are a type of approximant pronounced with the side of the tongue. English /l/ is a lateral. Together with the rhotics, which have similar behavior in many languages, these form a class of consonant called liquids. [pic]